weeks 1-3

1. What genre do the following texts belong to?
Voluspa, Volsunga Saga, Beowulf, The Hobbit and Lord of the Rings? 

Voluspa

Voluspa falls under the genre of a mythological poem. Anonymously written, the first publication dates back to the 9th century but can be traced as far back as the 6th century. 

According to the conventions of Norse mythological poems, these works are usually concerned with Gods and the origins of society. The excerpt bellow conveys this:

Hear my words, you holy gods,
great men and humble sons of Heimdall;
by Odin's will, I'll speak the ancient lore,
the oldest of all that I remember.

... 

I know how nine roots form nine worlds
under the earth where the Ash Tree rises.

 

Nothing was there when time began,
neither sand nor seas nor cooling waves.
Earth was not yet, nor the high heavens,
but a gaping emptiness nowhere green.

(Terry, 1990 & 1996)

 

 From the outset the reader is able to identify that this poem deals greatly with gods with the mention of Odin's name as well as the creation tale which is what the 'nine roots' and 'Ash Tree' makes reference to. The poem continues with the prophetess Volva telling how the world began and goes on to foretell of the demise of the world and the death of the Gods.

 

Volsunga Saga 

Volsunga Saga is typical of the Saga genre and is thought to have been composed in the 13th century by an unknown author. It can be likened to an ancient heroic adventure novel which recounts the legendary history and heroic exploits of mythic Viking families. This particular Saga relays the story of Sigurd son of Sigmund and his quest to slay the dragon Fafnir.

"Then said Regin "Make thee a hole, and sit down therein, and
whenas the worm comes to the water , smite him into the heart,
and so do him to death ...
 

 Sigurd made the pits even as it was shown to him.
 

Now crept the worm down to his place of watering, and the
earth shook all about him , and he snorted forth venom on
all the way before him as he went; but Sigurd neither
trembled nor was adrad at the roaring of him. So whenas,
the worm crept over the pits, Sigurd thrust his sword under
his left shoulder, so that it sank in up to the hilts ..."

(Morris & Magnussan, 1888).
 

Adhering to the conventions of a saga, Sigurd who belonged to a prominent Viking family in this tale is victorious in slaying the dragon.

 

Beowulf

 

 

 Beowulf belongs to the epic genre. Beowulf is one of the first Anglo Saxon texts and dates back to 9th and 10th centuries.  Like Sagas, epics also have a great deal to do with legendary feats of a mythical hero. However, one of the great differences between the two being that epics tend to focus more on the characteristics of the hero magnifying their grandeur, nobility and honor. 

 

The unidentified author sets the stage by relaying Beowulf's successes as a young man emphasising his conquests, strength and skills as a warrior. "With Beowulf against them, few could hope of returning home" (Heaney, 1999).  Beowulf's loyalty and nobility is also magnified when he declines the throne after Hygelac, King of the Geats is slain in battle. Instead Beowulf chooses to support and mentor Hygelac's heir Heardred. Eventually Heardred is killed by enemies leaving "Beowulf to ascend the throne, to sit in majesty, and rule over the Geats. He was a good king"  Who ruled for 50 years as a "wise warden of the land." (Heaney, 1999).

 

 

 

The Hobbit and The Lord of The Rings

 

 

 

 

 

The Hobbit and the Lord of The Rings (LOTR) are works of fantasy written by J. R. R. Tolkien in between the years of 1937 - 1949. As per the conventions of the fantasy genre, The Hobbit and LOTR are set in middle earth, a magical land where there are elves, dwarfs, hobbits, humans and wizards reside to name a few. In the hobbit the fight between the forces of good and evil shown through Thorin and company's quest to slay the dragon that occupies the dwarfs ancestral lands as well as to take back their treasure and wealth.  However when the Smaug the dragon is finally killed the balance of good and evil is tipped again as the Elves, Humans and Dwarfs fight for their share of the treasure that Smaug has left behind. In LOTR the war between good and evil is illustrated through the pursuit to destroy the ring.

 

 

 

 

 

2. What are some possible features of residual (or "secondary") orality preserved in Voluspa, according to the criteria Ong (1982) advances?

 

Although a written text, Voluspa has many features of orality indicating that the text could have been composed many years before it was written. Prose such as "Hear my words, you holy gods,"and "I'll speak the ancient lore ... " (Terry, 1990 & 1966) support this theory suggesting that Voluspa was originally a poem that was orally presented and performed. Doane and Braun Pasternack (1991), explain,

"The oldest vernacular literary texts that survive from medieval Europe are the products of two cultures. First they are marked by the characteristics of oral formulaic composition, pointing back to preliterate societies. But they are also the products of literacy, coming to us as they do in the written manuscripts."
 

I believe that this goes along the line of what Walter Ong describes as residual orality. Texts such as Voluspa would have been passed down from generation through memorising the poem. The problem with orality is that it does not leave any traces in history like literature does. When writing was finally introduced to Europe, a written version of this poem was produced but we will never know how close to the original Voluspa  really is. I believe that Voluspa was written to preserve the myth across time so it could be read and the legends and Gods contained within kept alive.




3. Identify a central incident that happens in at least four of the above texts, and discuss how it is both similar and different in each example (remember to site from the original texts).


The commonality between all of the texts is that the hero slays a dragon. In the case of Voluspa Thor:

"...Goes forth to fight the snake.
Midgard's defender dies triumphant,
but the human race no longer has a home:
nine steps beyond the Serpents body,
Thor, wounded, walks in pride." (Terry, 1990 & 1966).
 

 Here, Thor heroically slays the dragon, but is only able to take nine steps from the dragons body before he too dies from being poisoned by the dragons venom.

 

 

In Volsunga Saga Sigurd  (as previously discussed in the first question,) sets a trap for Fafnir by digging many pits in the ground near the dragons "place of watering" (Morris & Magnussun, 1888). Sigurd then waits for the unsuspecting dragon to walk above him allowing him to pierce the heart of dragon through it's soft underbelly. However, in this particular case, before the dragon dies, Sigurd and Fafnir have an import conversation wherein Regin's (brother of Fafnir) betrayal is uncovered. 

"And yet again he said, "Regin, my brother, has brought about my
end, and it gladdens my heart that thine too he bringeth about; for
thus will things be according to his will." (Morris & Magnussun, 1888).

 

The dragon reveals Regins treachery to Sigurd who is now able to avoid that fate of death by slaying Regin first.



In Beowulf, the dragon is also slain by the hands of the hero. However, the protagonist is no longer young and in the prime of his life. He has ruled for fifty winters growing old and wise (Heaney, 1999). The epic goes onto describe Beowulf's inner feelings of turmoil over the dragons attacks against his people.

"So the war-king planned and plotted his revenge
                                  ... ...
After many trials,
he was destined to face the end of his days
in this mortal world; as was the dragon,
for all his long leasehold on the treasure." (Heaney, 1999).
 

An apt prediction for the end of the text. Beowulf is successful in killing the dragon but in so doing, is inflicted with a mortal wound.


In Tolkien's Hobbit, it is "Thorin and his company" that caused the dragon to be angered and wreck havoc and destruction among neighbouring villages. By entering the dragons lair Smaug is enraged and decides to vent his anger on the men of the lake who he believes aided the company on their journey.

"Your feet came from the waterside and up the water you came without a doubt. I don't know your smell, but if you are not one of those men of the Lake, you had their help. They shall see me and remember who is the real King under the Mountain?
He rose in fire and went away south towards the Running River." (Tolkien, 1937).
 

Knowing not where the dragon has gone, Thor and company take advantage of Smaugs absence to raid the treasure the dragon left behind unprotected. In the meantime Smaug wreaks vengeance on the Lake town and it is here that the captain of the archers Bard (a descendant of the people Dale) puts an end to Smaug by shooting an arrow in his weak spot. 

"Suddenly out of the dark something fluttered to his shoulder. He
started - but it was only an old thrush. Unafraid it perched by his ear and
it brought him news ...  The moon is rising. Look for the hollow of the left breast as he flies and turns above you!" (Tolkien, 1937, pp236).

As it turns out, in this particular tale it is not the main protagonists that slay the dragon in fact, it is they who provoke the dragon into a senseless rage. It is Bard who slays the dragon with the advice of a thrush bird.

 

 

 

 

 

References:

Doane, A. & Braun Pasternack, C. (Ed.). (1991). Con-Texts Literary Criticism:Medieval Studies. University of Wisconsin Press.

Heaney, S. (Trans). (1999). Beowulf: a new translation. London: Penguin.

Morris, W. & Magnussun, E. (Trans.). (1888). The Story of the Volsungs (Volsunga Saga). London: Walter Scott Press.

Voluspa from Terry, P. (1990, 1966). Poems of the Elder Edda. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.